transfeminine-science/content/articles/sublingual-e2-transfem.md

294 lines
49 KiB
Markdown
Raw Normal View History

2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
---
title: 对女性倾向跨性别者舌下含服雌二醇以取代口服雌二醇的探索
linkTitle: 替代口服:舌下含服雌二醇的有效性
description: 雌二醇的舌下含服途径尽管研究较少,也有一定不足,但已在实践中行之有效,可作为口服途径的替代。
author: Sam
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
published: 2021-06-11
updated: 2021-09-06
translated: 2022-10-25
translators:
- Bersella AI
tags:
- 雌激素
- 用药途径与剂量
trackHash: fdd701930bcb4e0f6f2c2ca8df31b80ae016e9a0
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
---
## 译者按 {#notice}
1. **<u>⚠免责声明:本文不构成任何医疗、处方建议。如有医疗需要,应于专业医师指导下进行。</u>**
1. 本文系基于 Aly 所作《[舌下含服雌二醇及口服醋酸甲羟孕酮在女性倾向跨性别者中的应用][AW19-SUB]》的一次充分拓展的讨论,显然已取而代之。
1. 因译者能力所限,部分术语之翻译或有纰漏,烦请指正。
[AW19-SUB]: https://transfemscience.org/articles/sublingual-e2-mpa-jain-2019/
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
---
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
## 摘要 {#abstract}
> 目前为止,全球已有数家性别诊所成功应用了雌二醇的舌下含服途径——尽管尚鲜有医学文献对其加以描述。舌下含服途径尽管可能存在一些实际不足之处,但在适当剂量下,其有效性与经济性应该能为临床经验与权威评价所证明。对于部分女性倾向跨性别者,舌下含服雌二醇应当可以代替口服,用于女性化激素疗法。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
## 前言 {#introduction}
口服雌二醇片剂的最常用途径是口服,不过也可通过舌下、面颊含服<sup>([Kuhl, 2005][K05])</sup>。所谓舌下含服是指,将片剂置于舌头下方,使其溶解并被吸收,进入血液循环。而面颊含服与此类似,其需将片剂置于嘴唇与牙龈之间,片剂在此也会快速溶解并被吸收<sup>([Gass et al., 2004][G04]; [Bartlett & Maarschalk, 2012][BM12])</sup>
许多女性倾向跨性别者会想知道有关舌下含服雌二醇的详情;在网上询问最多的问题有“我应该使用多大剂量的含服雌二醇?”“我应该隔多久含服一次?”“舌下含服比口服要好吗?”等等。
在早前,笔者曾对有关口服与舌下含服雌二醇之间之比较的文献作了评述<sup>([Sam, 2020a][SS20a])</sup>。尽管不少女性倾向跨性别者已有舌下含服雌二醇的经验,对于自行用药者亦然,但笔者未在该评述当中提及舌下/面颊含服。其中部分原因包括,对此类不同于传统上更常用的途径的雌二醇用法给予关注的研究特别少;这貌似也是许多临床实践指南未囊括舌下含服雌二醇的原因所在<sup>([Aly, 2020a][AW20-GUIDE])</sup>。而且,当时笔者希望只专注于口服雌二醇。
不过,在该评述发表之后,有好几篇关于女性倾向跨性别者舌下含服雌二醇的研究论文都发表了。有了这些新资料,笔者觉得有必要针对女性倾向跨性别者常见的问题,来深入剖析此类用法;于是便有了本文。本文对已发表的有关舌下含服雌二醇——尤其是其在跨性别护理方面的应用——的医学文献进行概述,以期为上述问题进行释疑。
需要指出,尽管舌下含服与面颊含服完全是两回事,但其作用机理与药理学特性非常相似<sup>([Perloff, 1950][P50]; [Chandrasekhara et al., 2002][C02])</sup>。因此,虽然笔者在此主要讨论的是舌下含服,但其中许多内容同样适用于面颊含服途径。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
## 舌下含服雌二醇的药理学特性 {#pharmacology-of-sublingual-estradiol}
目前舌下含服雌二醇在临床实践当中的使用,并不及口服或其它形式的雌二醇要普遍;不过,迄今已有一批研究项目对这种形式的药理学特性做了考察。这些项目的受试者包括已绝经顺性别妇女、女性倾向跨性别者及其他患者群体<sup>([Casper & Yen, 1981][CY81]; [Serhal & Craft, 1989][SC89]; [Deutsch, Bhakri & Kubicek, 2015][DBK15]; [Cirrincione et al., 2021][C21])</sup>。口服雌二醇、戊酸雌二醇片剂均可用于舌下含服<sup>([Serhal, 1990][S90])</sup>
口服雌二醇之后,片剂成分会被肝脏大量代谢并失活,成为雌激素结合物<sup>([Kuhl, 2005][K05])</sup>。这些代谢物反过来会逐渐转换成雌二醇,使得雌二醇半衰期延长(约为 13-20 小时)<sup>([Stanczyk, Archer & Bhavnani, 2013][SAB13])</sup>。舌下含服雌二醇则与此相反:其不会大量经过肝脏,也不会因肝脏代谢而大幅失活;其很快就被吸收并直接进入血液循环。因此,舌下含服雌二醇的生物利用度要高于口服;这意味着只用较低剂量,便可达到相近的雌二醇累积水平<sup>([Kuhl, 2005][K05])</sup>(见下图)。这是舌下含服相较于口服的一项优势,其对剂量需求更小、药费也更少。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
<section class="box">
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
![figure](https://transfemscience.org/assets/images/sublingual-e2-transfem/single-dose-oral-e2.png)
![figure](https://transfemscience.org/assets/images/sublingual-e2-transfem/single-dose-oral-e2.png)
**多图表**:口服(上)与舌下/面颊含服(下)的途径下,单次服用 0.25-2 mg 雌二醇(已微粉化)之后的药代动力学特性。数据来自多项研究<sup>([Burnier et al., 1981][B81]; [Casper & Yen, 1981][CY81]; [Fiet et al., 1982][F82]; [Kuhnz, Gansau & Mahler, 1993][KGM93]; [Price et al., 1997][P97]; [Wiegratz et al., 2001][W01]; [Wren et al., 2003][W03]; [Pickar et al., 2015][P15])</sup>
其中,横向虚线表示绝经前妇女大致的雌二醇综合平均水平<sup>([Verdonk et al., 2019][V19])</sup>
</sup>
</section>
由于在舌下含服过程中可能会不慎吞服部分雌二醇,故舌下含服途径很可能囊括了含服与口服给药的情况<sup>([Lobo, 1987][L87]; [Kuhl, 2005][K05])</sup>。一项正在进行的有关女性倾向跨性别者的研究在其初期报告里写道,单次舌下含服 1 mg 雌二醇之后的 1-2 小时内,雌二醇水平皆有所上升,最高达 179 pg/mL 以上;与此相反,口服 1 mg 雌二醇仅可达到 36 pg/mL 的水平峰值<sup>([Doll et al., 2020][D20])</sup>;此后雌二醇水平快速下降。另一些针对已绝经妇女的研究,同样观测到了类似的大幅上升的浓度峰值<sup>([Burnier et al., 1981][B81]; [Price et al., 1997][P97]; [Wren et al., 2003][W03])</sup>。雌二醇水平上升时,增幅被发现可达口服的十倍左右,随后快速下降,而消除半衰期仅有几个小时<sup>([Kuhl, 2005][K05])</sup>。在这方面,舌下含服雌二醇与静脉注射途径较为相似,后者在注射后也引起雌二醇水平的快速上升、消除半衰期则非常短<sup>([Kuhnz, Gansau & Mahler, 1993][KGM93])</sup>。同样类似的是经鼻腔给药途径<sup>([Devissaguet et al., 1999][D99])</sup>
由于尖峰较大、作用时间短,舌下含服雌二醇在浓度上的表现并不如其它剂型那样稳定。因此,这是和其它剂型的明显不同之处——像口服雌二醇在一天里就很少有激素水平上的波动。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
已有研究报告了对舌下含服雌二醇之生物利用度的估计范围。其中一项针对已绝经妇女的小型随机性研究发现,在同等剂量下,舌下含服雌二醇引起的雌二醇累积水平较口服高出约 2.5 倍<sup>([Price et al., 1997][P97])</sup>。另一些研究则报告,舌下含服雌二醇的生物利用度估计值相对口服可达 5 倍之多<sup>([Pines et al., 1999][P99])</sup>。一项以绒猴进行试验的研究发现,舌下含服雌二醇的绝对生物利用度为 10%此数字约为传统上对口服雌二醇的生物利用度的估计值5%)的两倍(不过范围可达 0.1-12%<sup>([Kuhnz, Blode & Zimmermann, 1993][KBZ93])</sup>。因此,在雌二醇累积水平上,舌下含服途径应相当于口服的 2-5 倍。
基于上述发现,可以得出用于女性化激素疗法的舌下含服雌二醇剂量(见下表)。需要指出,因缺乏相关研究,舌下含服雌二醇的相对效力尚未被准确描述。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
<section class="box">
**表 1**在总雌二醇暴露量上大致相当的口服或舌下含服雌二醇E2、戊酸雌二醇EV之剂量<sup>([Price et al., 1997][P97]; [Pines et al., 1999][P99])</sup>
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
```csv
,低剂量,中等剂量,高剂量,超高剂量
**口服 E2**,2 mg/天,4 mg/天,8 mg/天,10 mg/天
**舌下含服 E2**<sup>a</sup>,0.51 mg/天,12 mg/天,24 mg/天,2.55 mg/天
**口服 EV**,3 mg/天,6 mg/天,10 mg/天,12 mg/天
**舌下含服 EV**<sup>a</sup>,0.751.5 mg/天,1.53 mg/天,2.55 mg/天,36 mg/天
```
(1) 按口服剂量的 25-50% 计,以反映在绝对生物利用度上的差异;按 0.5 mg 取整。
(另注) 雌二醇的生物利用度因人而异,和剂量有关的效应也在个体间相差显著。
EV 的分子质量更大,在同样剂量下的有效成分也更少。
需要指出EV 的相对生物利用度系从无戊酸基团的 E2 推断而来。
</section>
### 舌下含服雌二醇与女性化效果 {#sublingually-administered-estradiol-and-feminisation}
由于舌下/面颊含服雌二醇的半衰期很短,一些与在女性化激素疗法使用之有关的问题浮出了水面。在网络论坛上,有一个最常见的问题是:哪种性别肯定激素治疗的处方是最“有利于”雌激素产生女性化效果的——其中包括(而不限于)乳房发育和脂肪分布的效果。
目前尚无任何数据描述舌下含服雌二醇引起的女性化程度;相比之下,口服及透皮雌二醇已有所描述<sup>([Sam, 2020a][SS20a])</sup>。不过,如上文所述,在女性倾向跨性别者及性腺发育不良的顺性别女孩的乳房发育及其它女性化效果上,口服与非口服形式的雌二醇并未被发现有任何差别<sup>([Rosenfield et al., 2005][R05]; [Shah et al., 2014][S14]; [Klaver et al., 2018][K18]; [de Blok et al., 2021][B21])</sup>。因此,对于舌下含服的雌二醇,应该也不会在效力上有别于之。
迄今已有多家性别诊所使用舌下含服雌二醇;这一事实令人振奋,其表明舌下含服雌二醇可有效促进女性化<sup>([Deutsch, Bhakri & Kubicek, 2015][DBK15]; [Lim et al., 2019][L19]; [Cirrincione et al., 2021][C21])</sup>。而且,鉴于迄今尚无任何对比并客观评价舌下含服雌二醇之女性化效力的研究,目前根本说不准口服与舌下含服雌二醇在女性化效果上到底有任何差别。但愿将来会有更多研究聚焦于此。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
### 舌下含服雌二醇对睾酮的压制效力 {#testosterone-suppressing-efficacy-of-sublingually-administered-estradiol}
因为舌下含服雌二醇的半衰期很短,还催生了另一个问题:在对睾酮及其它雄激素的压制能力上,舌下含服途径和其它传统途径的对比如何。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
最早在 1940 年代,雌激素首次被描述为具有抗促性腺激素作用的抗雄激素制剂;其以口服合成雌激素(即己烯雌酚)的形式,用于治疗男性的前列腺癌<sup>([Huggins & Hodges, 1941][HH41])</sup>。而口服炔雌醇、一些长效雌二醇酯(如聚磷酸雌二醇)以及雌二醇透皮贴片,也曾有相关研究;其抗雄效力已确认无疑<sup>([Stege et al., 1996][S96]; [Kohli, 2006][K06]; [Sciarra et al., 2015][S15])</sup>。由于有关女性倾向跨性别者使用雌激素压制睾酮的数据稀缺,上述数据对女性化激素疗法会很有启发。
而另一方面,舌下含服雌二醇从未被用于治疗前列腺癌,因此尚无任何数据表明其抗雄效力如何。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
近期一些研究发现,在许多女性倾向跨性别者身上,仅由非舌下含服形式达到生理水平(即 100-200 pg/mL的雌二醇足以快速且接近完全地将睾酮水平压制到女性范围<sup>([Leinung, Feustel & Joseph, 2018][LFJ18]; [Pappas et al., 2020][P20])</sup>。另外,有一项正于英国进行的多中心随机对照试验研究,对约 900 名男性使用前列腺癌透皮激素疗法PATCH其提供的新数据显示通过透皮贴片维持雌二醇水平中位数在 215-250 pg/mL 之间,可将睾酮水平压制到阉割范围(<50 ng/dL 95%GnRH<sup>([Langley et al., 2021][L21])</sup>
然而,考虑到舌下含服雌二醇在药代动力学上的显著差异,可以认为,在雌二醇累积水平相当的剂量下,舌下含服雌二醇对睾酮的压制作用可能低于其它途径的平均水平。换句话说,在睾酮压制作用上,舌下含服之后波动很大、且作用时间更短的雌二醇水平,可能不及更稳定的雌二醇水平那样有效。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
对此有一些药理学研究可略为佐证。其中一项证据是:一些关于妇女使用舌下含服与静脉注射雌二醇的研究报告,尽管雌二醇水平在数个小时内充分升高,也能较快产生对促性腺激素(即促卵泡激素与促黄体激素)的压制作用,但该作用相对有限<sup>([Tsai & Yen, 1971][TY71]; [Burnier et al., 1981][B81]; [Casper & Yen, 1981][CY81]; [Hoon et al., 1993][H93])</sup>。这些研究质量较差,而且由于未测量睾酮压制作用几何、受试者也仅有顺性别妇女,其证据也不够明了。另一个问题在于,这些研究均仅安排单次用药,其结果不大能代表多次用药的情况。有这样一种可能:重复以生理剂量使用舌下含服雌二醇,便可使促性腺激素压制效果最大化。
然而,这些研究可能表明:对于女性倾向跨性别者,如果舌下含服雌二醇的剂量不够大、且不使用其它抗雄制剂,则不足以最大程度地压制性腺功能;而大剂量又会带来更高的健康风险。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
还有一种可能:在与有关前列腺癌的研究所采用的剂量(如 2-4 片 100 μg/24小时的透皮贴片相当的情况下舌下含服的单雌二醇疗法可能不及前者有效。因此对于单雌激素疗法的处方使用雌二醇透皮贴片、凝胶或者非肠道途径的雌二醇酯如戊酸雌二醇注射剂可能更为可靠。
另一方面,已有研究者对女性倾向跨性别者使用舌下含服雌二醇(合并或不合并低剂量醋酸甲羟孕酮,即 MPA——一种合成孕酮制剂进行了研究<sup>([Jain, Kwan & Forcier, 2019][JKF19])</sup>。研究显示,当女性倾向跨性别者同时使用舌下含服雌二醇与 MPA 时,睾酮水平均至少有相当程度的下降,并降至女性范围(<50 ng/dL 10 mg/使<sup>([Aly, 2019][AW19-CPA])</sup>
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
### 对舌下含服引起的雌二醇水平的监测 {#monitoring-of-estradiol-levels-with-sublingual-administration}
由于舌下含服雌二醇引起的雌二醇水平的大幅波动,也进一步产生了是否通过验血来监视雌二醇水平的考虑。截至目前,所有《指南》均未对用药后何时进行验血作出建议<sup>([Deutsch, 2016][D16]; [Cheung et al., 2019][C19]; [TSjoen et al., 2020][T20])</sup>。这可能和实际需求有一定关系;或者是因为目前尚未有来自任何随机性对照试验的、可供指引女性化激素疗法所用剂量的可靠数据。而且,也由于舌下含服后的雌二醇水平波动很大,有必要知道用药后何时进行采血,以更准确地解读来自实验室的结果。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
例如,如果刚用药便去测定激素水平,则很可能会引起误解,因为此时测得的雌二醇水平会特别高,从而促使用药者为控制雌二醇于合理水平而减小其剂量。事实上,这是由舌下含服雌二醇的药理学特性引起的误解:因为这个采样时间点几乎正值雌二醇水平最高之时。如此雌二醇水平无法代表其平均暴露量——后者才能更准确地衡量总雌激素效力。
类似地,如果在时间轴的另一端——即即将用药时——进行采血,也可能会引起“雌激素水平过低”的误解,从而过量服用雌激素。此类误解在不熟悉舌下含服雌二醇的药理学特性的人群当中更为常见:因为雌二醇水平仅在用药后最初几个小时内维持高值,此后快速下降。
有关舌下含服雌二醇的研究也存在这种疏忽的迹象。例如,在上文提到的对性别肯定激素疗法使用舌下含服雌二醇进行的分析结果当中,并未说明其用药频率与用药之后何时进行测定<sup>([Jain, Kwan & Forcier, 2019][JKF19])</sup>。尽管其数据非常宝贵、并且对在这方面持续进行的研究具备参考价值,但是并没有解答用药后何时测定雌二醇水平这个关键问题。当下很难再对该研究所记录的雌二醇水平作任何评述;而且,无法利用其数据来得出口服与舌下含服雌二醇在何种剂量下(效力)相当。
为了解决因舌下含服后雌二醇水平快速波动而导致的上述问题,或许只需选择在雌二醇水平大概最接近于平均值的时间点进行测定。相关研究发现,对于舌下含服雌二醇,这个时间点一般在服药后四小时左右——不过个体之间差异可能会很大<sup>([Kuhl, 2005][K05])</sup>。而且,通过这种方式,可以获得最能代表总雌激素暴露量的“大致印象”,也能够帮助使用舌下含服雌二醇的人避免对实验室(测定)数据产生误解。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
### 关于每日分多次含服的说明 {#administration-of-multiple-sublingual-doses-per-day}
为补偿舌下含服雌二醇的较短半衰期,可以每日以小剂量分多次服用,以维持稍为更稳定的激素水平<sup>([Ahokas, Kaukoranta & Aito, 1999][AKA99])</sup>
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
在一项研究当中,在高剂量雌激素疗法下,每日舌下含服 3-4 次 2 mg 雌二醇(总剂量 6-8 mg/天)的绝经前妇女的激素水平,相比每日服一次者显著稳定得多<sup>([Serhal & Craft, 1989][SC89])</sup>。另一项研究安排每日服用 3-8 次,也复现了上述结果<sup>([Ahokas et al., 2001][A01])</sup>
与此相反,在有关低剂量面颊含服雌二醇的研究中,有三分之一都使用每日含服 1-2 次 0.25 mg 雌二醇;在 12 小时观察时段内,其发现无论含服 1 次还是 2 次,其雌二醇浓度“稳态”都没有明显差别<sup>([Wren et al., 2003][W03])</sup>
上述发现表明,舌下/面颊含服雌二醇可能要每日分至少三次服用,以使雌二醇水平更为稳定。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
基于上述理由,如果女性倾向跨性别者要使用舌下含服雌二醇,一日内分多次服用的方式会更适合;或许最好每日至少分 3-4 次。例如,比起一次性服用 2 mg如在 24 小时内分四次服用 0.5 mg应该会更佳在可行范围内尽量让间隔均等。虽然每日分多次含服可能会带来一定不便但至少雌二醇水平会因此更加均衡、睾酮压制作用也可能更好。
每日分多次服用的方式应视为舌下含服雌二醇的最佳用法。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
## 安全性与耐受性 {#safety-and-tolerability}
遗憾的是,在与舌下/面颊含服雌二醇的药代动力学有关的安全性与耐受性方面,现有的医学文献尚显不足。不同于口服及透皮雌二醇(已在围绝经期妇女身上进行严谨研究),当下尚无任何有关舌下含服雌二醇的长期安全性数据<sup>([Rovinski et al., 2018][R18]; [乳腺癌激素相关因素合作研究小组, CGHFBC, 2019][CGHFBC19])</sup>
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
### 雌激素的不良健康影响 {#adverse-health-effects-of-estrogens}
由于对肝脏的一系列影响,雌激素在暴露量足够的条件下,会引起血栓风险的上升<sup>([Kuhl, 2005][K05]; [Aly, 2020b][AW20-CLOT])</sup>。此外,雌激素在特定条件下还会引起其它心血管并发症<sup>([Anderson et al., 2004][A04]; [Mikkola et al., 2005][M05])</sup>。这些是跟性别肯定激素疗法相关的最大的健康顾虑——尽管其绝对风险在短期内很低。
仅有少量研究评估了舌下含服雌二醇对肝脏的影响<sup>([Pines et al., 1999][P99]; [Lim et al., 2019][L19])</sup>。数据发现其在脂质与胆固醇上的作用与其它形式的雌激素相似。有一项证据表明舌下含服雌二醇对肝脏的作用要强于透皮雌二醇等其它形式;那就是其引起的雌酮与硫酸雌酮含量显著更高——也即,其在肝脏内引起的雌激素暴露量更大<sup>([Burnier et al., 1981][B81]; [Cirrincione et al., 2021][C21])</sup>。非口服形式的雌二醇在高剂量下可引起高凝状态,从而在肝脏引起强烈的雌激素活动。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
有相当一部分的研究对雌激素的短期与长期健康影响有所关注,不过无一研讨过舌下/面颊含服的情况<sup>([Oliver-Williams et al., 2019][OW19]; [Mishra et al., 2021][M21])</sup>。由于口服雌二醇的风险比非口服形式更高、且舌下含服只是部分(而非完全)避免了肝脏首过效应的代谢作用,可以认为,舌下含服雌二醇的风险应不高于口服、但也不低于其它非口服途径。
一项在美国进行的回顾性群体研究发现,修正干扰因子后,在血栓栓塞发生率上,正服用平均 4 mg/天的口服雌二醇的女性倾向跨性别者约为对照组(未服用激素的顺性别妇女)的两倍;相对对照组的风险比率为 2.095% 可信区间1.4-2.8<sup>([Getahun et al., 2018][G18])</sup>。此类风险之增幅已经远比早年女性倾向跨性别者所用处方(含高剂量合成雌激素)的要小;但同时需要注意,即便是此等增幅也会大幅增加发病率和死亡率<sup>([Morimont, Dogné & Douxfils, 2020][MDD20])</sup>
在此建议限制舌下/面颊含服雌二醇的剂量(如小于 6 mg/天),这样它们不至于产生过多有害作用,并可令性别肯定激素治疗的益处与风险处于平衡。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
### 用药者的不配合行为 {#non-compliance}
对于女性倾向跨性别者,舌下含服有一项很现实的阻碍:即每日需含服三次、四次乃至更多,会带来相当程度的不便。一些观察性研究发现,一般而言,为患者开出的药量与每日剂量,和患者的不配合行为及漏服次数呈正关联<sup>([Jin et al., 2008][J08]; [Toh et al., 2014][T14])</sup>。这些发现尤其跟女性倾向跨性别者有关,因为一般情况下,我们需要在数十年间一直服用激素。如果一段时间里仅漏服一次,倒无伤大雅;但连续多次漏服的话,问题就大了。
与舌下含服相反的是,口服雌二醇及其透皮凝胶的半衰期长至足以仅需每日用药一次<sup>([Wiegratz et al., 2001][W01]; [Potts & Lobo, 2005][PL05])</sup>。至于透皮贴片和非肠道给药(如注射剂——译者注)形式的雌二醇,其补充间隔可长达数日、以至更长<sup>([Thurman et al., 2013][T13]; [Wisner et al., 2015][W15])</sup>。因此,如果女性倾向跨性别者准备使用舌下含服而非其它途径,也应当格外留意,每日都要多次含服是否符合实际、足够方便;如否,则其它剂型应更适合使用。如要长期用药,那就更应该考虑这点了。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
## 总结 {#summary-and-conclusions}
相比于其它雌激素形式,当下对于舌下/面颊含服雌二醇的研究还很少。历史上,诸如口服、透皮雌激素等形式,常用于缓解围绝经期症状及其它用途;因此,在女性化激素疗法当中,这些形式得到了远甚于舌下含服形式的关注度与特性描述。不过,近期数项研究填补了我们对舌下含服雌二醇的认知空白。如果有跨性别健康临床实践指南未曾讨论舌下含服雌二醇之使用的话,其应当考虑在相关信息愈发完善之后修订其内容。
在药理学特性上,舌下含服雌二醇与其它剂型不同。其中最主要的差别是:其会引起雌二醇水平的快速上升和下降。其生物利用度约为口服的 2-4 倍,因此其仅需 *25-50% 的剂量*\* 便可提供相同的雌二醇暴露量。这不仅使得其开销低于口服,而且同等剂量下也可达到更高的雌二醇水平,有助于压制睾酮,因此具备一定优势。
> \* 译者注:原文为“(比口服)低 2-4 倍的剂量”。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
目前尚无任何证据显示或表明,在女性化效果上,舌下含服雌二醇是比其它途径更好还是更差;不过可以确信的是,在同等雌二醇总暴露量下,舌下含服雌二醇对睾酮的压制作用可能稍弱。尽管如此,当合并服用其它抗雄制剂时,舌下含服雌二醇还是能够有效压制睾酮。
使用舌下含服雌二醇时,如要监测雌二醇水平,需要留意(检测时机)以确保其结果可被准确解读。为尽量让上述潜在问题变得最小,可以每日分多次含服。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
迄今尚无任何大型观察性或随机性研究对舌下含服雌二醇带来的健康风险进行测定。因此,其引起心血管问题的风险尚未可知——尽管其一部分引起的肝脏首过效应在这方面而言是安全的。
舌下含服雌二醇的使用(尤其是长期使用)可能不大方便,这时可以考虑换用其它剂型。
总而言之,舌下含服雌二醇应具有许多优良特性,可代替口服雌二醇用于女性化激素治疗——尽管其显然尚需更多研究来得到更准确的描述。
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
## 参考文献 {#references}
- Ahokas, A., Kaukoranta, J., & Aito, M. (1999). Effect of oestradiol on postpartum depression. _Psychopharmacology_, _146_(1), 108110. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1007/s002130051095>\]
- Ahokas, A., Kaukoranta, J., Wahlbeck, K., & Aito, M. (2001). Estrogen deficiency in severe postpartum depression: successful treatment with sublingual physiologic 17β-estradiol: a preliminary study. _Journal of Clinical Psychiatry_, _62_(5), 332336. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.4088/jcp.v62n0504>\] \[[PDF](https://files.transfemscience.org/pdfs/Ahokas%20(2001)%20-%20Estrogen%20Deficiency%20in%20Severe%20Postpartum%20Depression_%20Successful%20Treatment%20With%20Sublingual%20Physiologic%2017%CE%B2-Estradiol_%20A%20Preliminary%20Study.pdf)\]
- Anderson, G. L., Limacher, M., Assaf, A. R., Bassford, T., Beresford, S. A., Black, H., Bonds, D., Brunner, R., Brzyski, R., Caan, B., Chlebowski, R., Curb, D., Gass, M., Hays, J., Heiss, G., Hendrix, S., Howard, B. V., Hsia, J., Hubbell, A., Jackson, R., … & Womens Health Initiative Steering Committee (2004). Effects of conjugated equine estrogen in postmenopausal women with hysterectomy: the Womens Health Initiative randomized controlled trial. _JAMA_, _291_(14), 17011712. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.291.14.1701>\]
- Bartlett, J. A., & van der Voort Maarschalk, K. (2012). Understanding the oral mucosal absorption and resulting clinical pharmacokinetics of asenapine. _AAPS Pharmscitech_, _13_(4), 11101115. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1208/s12249-012-9839-7>\]
- Burnier, A. M., Martin, P. L., Yen, S. S., & Brooks, P. (1981). Sublingual absorption of micronized 17β-estradiol. _American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology_, _140_(2), 146150. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(81)90101-0>\]
- Casper, R. F., & Yen, S. S. (1981). Rapid absorption of micronized estradiol-17β following sublingual administration. _Obstetrics and Gynecology_, _57_(1), 6264. \[[PubMed](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7454177/])\] \[[URL](https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/Abstract/1981/01000/Rapid_Absorption_of_Micronized_Estradiol_17_.14.aspx)\]
- Chandrasekhara, D. S., Ali, V., Prost, H. M., & Nader-Estekhari, S. (2002). Buccal estrogen in toothpaste study: systemic absorption of estradiol in postmenopausal or surgically menopausal women when administered as a component in toothpaste. _Fertility and Sterility_, _78_(Suppl 1), S98S98 (O-258). \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/S0015-0282(02)03639-7>\]
- Cheung, A. S., Wynne, K., Erasmus, J., Murray, S., & Zajac, J. D. (2019). Position statement on the hormonal management of adult transgender and gender diverse individuals. _Medical Journal of Australia_, _211_(3), 127133. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.5694/mja2.50259>\]
- Cirrincione, L. R., Winston McPherson, G., Rongitsch, J., Sadilkova, K., Drees, J. C., Krasowski, M. D., Dickerson, J. A., & Greene, D. N. (2021). Sublingual Estradiol Is Associated with Higher Estrone Concentrations than Transdermal or Injectable Preparations in Transgender Women and Gender Nonbinary Adults. _LGBT Health_, _8_(2), 125132. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1089/lgbt.2020.0249>\]
- Collaborative Group on Hormonal Factors in Breast Cancer. (2019). Type and timing of menopausal hormone therapy and breast cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of the worldwide epidemiological evidence. _The Lancet_, _394_(10204), 11591168. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(19)31709-X>\]
- de Blok, C., Dijkman, B., Wiepjes, C. M., Staphorsius, A. S., Timmermans, F. W., Smit, J. M., Dreijerink, K., & den Heijer, M. (2021). Sustained Breast Development and Breast Anthropometric Changes in 3 Years of Gender-Affirming Hormone Treatment. _The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism_, _106_(2), e782e790. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgaa841>\]
- Deutsch, M. B., Bhakri, V., & Kubicek, K. (2015). Effects of cross-sex hormone treatment on transgender women and men. _Obstetrics and Gynecology_, _125_(3), 605610. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1097/AOG.0000000000000692>\]
- Deutsch, M. B. (Ed.). (2016). _Guidelines for the Primary and Gender-Affirming Care of Transgender and Gender Nonbinary People, 2nd Edition._ San Francisco: University of California, San Francisco/UCSF Transgender Care. \[[URL](https://transcare.ucsf.edu/guidelines)\] \[[PDF](https://transcare.ucsf.edu/sites/transcare.ucsf.edu/files/Transgender-PGACG-6-17-16.pdf)\]
- Devissaguet, J. P., Brion, N., Lhote, O., & Deloffre, P. (1999). Pulsed estrogen therapy: pharmacokinetics of intranasal 17-beta-estradiol (S21400) in postmenopausal women and comparison with oral and transdermal formulations. _European Journal of Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics_, _24_(3), 265271. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03190030>\]
- Doll, E. E., Gunsolus, I., Lamberton, N., Tangpricha, V., & Sarvaideo, J. L. (2020). Pharmacokinetics of Sublingual Versus Oral Estradiol in Transgender Women. _Journal of the Endocrine Society_, _4_(Suppl 1), A1128A1128 (SUN-LB9). \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1210/jendso/bvaa046.2237>\]
- Fiet, J., Hermano, M., Witte, J., Villette, J. M., Haimart, M., Gourmel, B., Tabuteau, F., Rouffy, J., & Dreux, C. (1982). Post-menopausal concentrations of plasma oestradiol, oestrone, FSH and LH and of total urinary oestradiol and oestrone after a single sublingual dose of oestradiol-17β. _Acta Endocrinologica_, _101_(1), 9397. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1530/acta.0.1010093>\]
- Gass, M. S., Rebar, R. W., Cuffie-Jackson, C., Cedars, M. I., Lobo, R. A., Shoupe, D., Judd, H. L., Buyalos, R. P., & Clisham, P. R. (2004). A short study in the treatment of hot flashes with buccal administration of 17-β estradiol. _Maturitas_, _49_(2), 140147. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.maturitas.2003.12.004>\]
- Getahun, D., Nash, R., Flanders, W. D., Baird, T. C., Becerra-Culqui, T. A., Cromwell, L., Hunkeler, E., Lash, T. L., Millman, A., Quinn, V. P., Robinson, B., Roblin, D., Silverberg, M. J., Safer, J., Slovis, J., Tangpricha, V., & Goodman, M. (2018). Cross-sex hormones and acute cardiovascular events in transgender persons: a cohort study. _Annals of Internal Medicine_, _169_(4), 205213. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.7326/M17-2785>\]
- Haupt, C., Henke, M., Kutschmar, A., Hauser, B., Baldinger, S., Saenz, S. R., & Schreiber, G. (2020). Antiandrogen or estradiol treatment or both during hormone therapy in transitioning transgender women. _Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews_, _11_(11), CD013138. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD013138.pub2>\]
- Hoon, T. J., Dawood, M. Y., KhanDawood, F. S., Ramos, J., & Batenhorst, R. L. (1993). Bioequivalence of a 17βEstradiol HydroxypropylβCyclodextrin Complex in Postmenopausal Women. _The Journal of Clinical Pharmacology_, _33_(11), 11161121. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1552-4604.1993.tb01949.x>\]
- Huggins, C., & Hodges, C. V. (1941). Studies on prostatic cancer. I. The effect of castration, of estrogen and of androgen injection on serum phosphatases in metastatic carcinoma of the prostate. _Cancer Research_, _1_(4), 293297. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.3322/canjclin.22.4.232>\]
- Jain, J., Kwan, D., & Forcier, M. (2019). Medroxyprogesterone acetate in Gender-Affirming therapy for Transwomen: results from a retrospective study. _The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism_, _104_(11), 51485156. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2018-02253>\]
- Jin, J., Sklar, G. E., Oh, V. M. S., & Li, S. C. (2008). Factors affecting therapeutic compliance: A review from the patients perspective. _Therapeutics and Clinical Risk Management_, _4_(1), 269286. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.2147/TCRM.S1458>\]
- Klaver, M., de Blok, C. J. M., Wiepjes, C. M., Nota, N. M., Dekker, M. J., de Mutsert, R., Schreiner, T., Fisher, A. D., TSjoen, G., & den Heijer, M. (2018). Changes in regional body fat, lean body mass and body shape in trans persons using cross-sex hormonal therapy: results from a multicenter prospective study. _European Journal of Endocrinology_, _178_(2), 163171. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1530/EJE-17-0496>\]
- Kohli, M. (2006). Phase II study of transdermal estradiol in androgenindependent prostate carcinoma. _Cancer_, _106_(1), 234235. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1002/cncr.21528>\]
- Kuhl, H. (2005). Pharmacology of estrogens and progestogens: influence of different routes of administration. _Climacteric_, _8_(Suppl 1), 363. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1080/13697130500148875>\] \[[PDF](https://hormonebalance.org/images/documents/Kuhl%2005%20%20Pharm%20Estro%20Progest%20Climacteric_1311166827.pdf)\]
- Kuhnz, W., Blode, H., & Zimmermann, H. (1993). Pharmacokinetics of exogenous natural and synthetic estrogens and antiestrogens. In Oettel, M., & Schillinger, E. (Eds.). _Estrogens and Antiestrogens II: Pharmacology and Clinical Application of Estrogens and Antiestrogen_ (_Handbook of Experimental Pharmacology, Volume 135/II_) (pp. 261322). Berlin/Heidelberg: Springer. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-60107-1_15>\]
- Kuhnz, W., Gansau, C., & Mahler, M. (1993). Pharmacokinetics of estradiol, free and total estrone, in young women following single intravenous and oral administration of 17β-estradiol. _Arzneimittelforschung_, _43_(9), 966973. \[[Google Scholar](https://scholar.google.com/scholar?cluster=3536999842749234957)\] \[[PubMed](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8240460/])\] \[[PDF](https://files.transfemscience.org/pdfs/Kuhnz,%20Gansau,%20&%20Mahler%20(1993)%20-%20Pharmacokinetics%20of%20Estradiol,%20Free%20and%20Total%20Estrone,%20in%20Young%20Women%20Following%20Single%20Intravenous%20and%20Oral%20Administration%20of%2017%CE%B2-Estradiol.pdf)\]
- Langley, R. E., Gilbert, D. C., Duong, T., Clarke, N. W., Nankivell, M., Rosen, S. D., Mangar, S., Macnair, A., Sundaram, S. K., Laniado, M. E., Dixit, S., Madaan, S., Manetta, C., Pope, A., Scrase, C. D., Mckay, S., Muazzam, I. A., Collins, G. N., Worlding, J., Williams, S. T., … & Parmar, M. (2021). Transdermal oestradiol for androgen suppression in prostate cancer: long-term cardiovascular outcomes from the randomised Prostate Adenocarcinoma Transcutaneous Hormone (PATCH) trial programme. _The Lancet_, _397_(10274), 581591. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(21)00100-8>\]
- Leinung, M. C., Feustel, P. J., & Joseph, J. (2018). Hormonal treatment of transgender women with oral estradiol. _Transgender Health_, _3_(1), 7481. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1089/trgh.2017.0035>\]
- Lim, H. H., Jang, Y. H., Choi, G. Y., Lee, J. J., & Lee, E. S. (2019). Gender affirmative care of transgender people: a single centers experience in Korea. _Obstetrics & Gynecology Science_, _62_(1), 4655. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.5468/ogs.2019.62.1.46>\]
- Lobo, R. A. (1987). Absorption and metabolic effects of different types of estrogens and progestogens. _Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America_, _14_(1), 143167. \[[PubMed](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3306517/])\] \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-8545(21)00577-5>\] \[[URL](https://www.obgyn.theclinics.com/article/S0889-8545(21)00577-5/fulltext)\] \[[PDF](https://files.transfemscience.org/pdfs/Lobo%20(1987)%20-%20Absorption%20and%20metabolic%20effects%20of%20different%20types%20of%20estrogens%20and%20progestogens.pdf)\]
- Mikkola, A., Aro, J., Rannikko, S., Oksanen, H., Ruutu, M., & Finnprostate Group. (2005). Cardiovascular complications in patients with advanced prostatic cancer treated by means of orchiectomy or polyestradiol phosphate. _Scandinavian Journal of Urology and Nephrology_, _39_(4), 294300. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1080/00365590510031228>\]
- Mishra, S. R., Chung, H. F., Waller, M., & Mishra, G. D. (2021). Duration of estrogen exposure during reproductive years, age at menarche and age at Menopause, and risk of cardiovascular disease events, allcause and cardiovascular mortality: a systematic review and metaanalysis. _BJOG: An International Journal of Obstetrics & Gynaecology_, _128_(5), 809821. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-0528.16524>\]
- Morimont, L., Dogné, J. M., & Douxfils, J. (2020). Letter to the Editors-in-Chief in response to the article of Abou-Ismail, et al. entitled _“Estrogen and thrombosis: A bench to bedside review”_ (Thrombosis Research 192 (2020) 4051). _Thrombosis Research_, _193_, 221223. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2020.08.006>\]
- Oliver-Williams, C., Glisic, M., Shahzad, S., Brown, E., Pellegrino Baena, C., Chadni, M., Chowdhury, R., Franco, O. H., & Muka, T. (2019). The route of administration, timing, duration and dose of postmenopausal hormone therapy and cardiovascular outcomes in women: a systematic review. _Human Reproduction Update_, _25_(2), 257271. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1093/humupd/dmy039>\]
- Pappas, I. I., Craig, W. Y., Spratt, L. V., & Spratt, D. I. (2021). Efficacy of Sex Steroid Therapy Without Progestin or GnRH Agonist for Gonadal Suppression in Adult Transgender Patients. _The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism_, _106_(3), e1290e1300. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1210/clinem/dgaa884>\]
- Perloff, W. H. (1950). Estradiol buccal tablets in the treatment of the menopause. _American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology_, _59_(1), 223225. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9378(50)90390-5>\]
- Pickar, J. H., Bon, C., Amadio, J. M., Mirkin, S., & Bernick, B. (2015). Pharmacokinetics of the first combination 17β-estradiol/progesterone capsule in clinical development for menopausal hormone therapy. _Menopause_, _22_(12), 13081316. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1097/GME.0000000000000467>\]
- Pines, A., Averbuch, M., Fisman, E. Z., & Rosano, G. M. (1999). The acute effects of sublingual 17β-estradiol on the cardiovascular system. _Maturitas_, _33_(1), 8185. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-5122(99)00036-5>\]
- Potts, R. O., & Lobo, R. A. (2005). Transdermal drug delivery: clinical considerations for the obstetriciangynecologist. _Obstetrics & Gynecology_, _105_(5), 953961. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1097/01.AOG.0000161958.70059.db>\]
- Price, T. M., Blauer, K. L., Hansen, M., Stanczyk, F., Lobo, R., & Bates, G. W. (1997). Single-dose pharmacokinetics of sublingual versus oral administration of micronized 17β-estradiol. _Obstetrics & Gynecology_, _89_(3), 340345. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/S0029-7844(96)00513-3>\]
- Rosenfield, R. L., Devine, N., Hunold, J. J., Mauras, N., Moshang Jr, T., & Root, A. W. (2005). Salutary effects of combining early very low-dose systemic estradiol with growth hormone therapy in girls with Turner syndrome. _The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism_, _90_(12), 64246430. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2005-1081>\]
- Rovinski, D., Ramos, R. B., Fighera, T. M., Casanova, G. K., & Spritzer, P. M. (2018). Risk of venous thromboembolism events in postmenopausal women using oral versus non-oral hormone therapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. _Thrombosis Research_, _168_, 8395. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.thromres.2018.06.014>\]
- Sciarra, A., Gentile, V., Cattarino, S., Gentilucci, A., Alfarone, A., DEramo, G., & Salciccia, S. (2015). Oral ethinylestradiol in castrationresistant prostate cancer: a 10year experience. _International Journal of Urology_, _22_(1), 98103. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1111/iju.12613>\]
- Serhal, P., & Craft, I. (1989). Oocyte donation in 61 patients. _The Lancet_, _333_(8648), 11851187. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(89)92762-1>\]
- Serhal, P. (1990). Oocyte donation and surrogacy. _British Medical Bulletin_, _46_(3), 796812. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.bmb.a072432>\]
- Shah, S., Forghani, N., Durham, E., & Neely, E. K. (2014). A randomized trial of transdermal and oral estrogen therapy in adolescent girls with hypogonadism. _International Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology_, _2014_(1), 12. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1186/1687-9856-2014-12>\]
- Stanczyk, F. Z., Archer, D. F., & Bhavnani, B. R. (2013). Ethinyl estradiol and 17β-estradiol in combined oral contraceptives: pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and risk assessment. _Contraception_, _87_(6), 706727. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.12.011>\]
- Stege, R., Gunnarsson, P. O., Johansson, C. J., Olsson, P., Pousette, Å., & Carlström, K. (1996). Pharmacokinetics and testosterone suppression of a single dose of polyestradiol phosphate (Estradurin®) in prostatic cancer patients. _The Prostate_, _28_(5), 307310. \[DOI:[10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(199605)28:5<307::AID-PROS6>3.0.CO;2-8](https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-0045(199605)28:5%3C307::AID-PROS6%3E3.0.CO;2-8)\]
- TSjoen, G., Arcelus, J., De Vries, A. L., Fisher, A. D., Nieder, T. O., Özer, M., & Motmans, J. (2020). European Society for Sexual Medicine position statement “assessment and hormonal management in adolescent and adult trans people, with attention for sexual function and satisfaction”. _The Journal of Sexual Medicine_, _17_(4), 570584. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.01.012>\]
- Thurman, A., Kimble, T., Hall, P., Schwartz, J. L., & Archer, D. F. (2013). Medroxyprogesterone acetate and estradiol cypionate injectable suspension (Cyclofem) monthly contraceptive injection: steady-state pharmacokinetics. _Contraception_, _87_(6), 738743. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.contraception.2012.11.010>\]
- Toh, M. R., Teo, V., Kwan, Y. H., Raaj, S., Tan, S. Y. D., & Tan, J. Z. Y. (2014). Association between number of doses per day, number of medications and patients non-compliance, and frequency of readmissions in a multi-ethnic Asian population. _Preventive Medicine Reports_, _1_, 4347. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2014.10.001>\]
- Tsai, C. C., & Yen, S. S. C. (1971). Acute effects of intravenous infusion of 17β-estradiol on gonadotropin release in pre-and post-menopausal women. _The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism_, _32_(6), 766771. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1210/jcem-32-6-766>\]
- Verdonk, S. J., Vesper, H. W., Martens, F., Sluss, P. M., Hillebrand, J. J., & Heijboer, A. C. (2019). Estradiol reference intervals in women during the menstrual cycle, postmenopausal women and men using an LC-MS/MS method. _Clinica Chimica Acta_, _495_, 198204. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cca.2019.04.062>\]
- Wiegratz, I., Fink, T., Rohr, U. D., Lang, E., Leukel, P., & Kuhl, H. (2001). Überkreuz-Vergleich der Pharmakokinetik von Estradiol unter der Hormonsubstitution mit Estradiolvalerat oder mikronisiertem Estradiol. \[Cross-over comparison of the pharmacokinetics of estradiol during hormone replacement therapy with estradiol valerate or micronized estradiol.\] _Zentralblatt für Gynäkologie_, _123_(9), 505512. \[[PubMed](https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11709743/)\] \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2001-18223>\]
- Wisner, K. L., Sit, D. K., Moses-Kolko, E. L., Driscoll, K. E., Prairie, B. A., Stika, C. S., Eng, H. F., Dills, J. L., Luther, J. F., & Wisniewski, S. R. (2015). Transdermal estradiol treatment for postpartum depression: a pilot randomized trial. _Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology_, _35_(4), 389395. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1097/JCP.0000000000000351>\]
- Wren, B. G., Day, R. O., McLachlan, A. J., & Williams, K. M. (2003). Pharmacokinetics of estradiol, progesterone, testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone after transbuccal administration to postmenopausal women. _Climacteric_, _6_(2), 104111. \[DOI:<https://doi.org/10.1080/cmt.6.2.104.111>\]
[K05]: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/13697130500148875
[SAB13]: https://www.contraceptionjournal.org/article/S0010-7824(12)01079-7/fulltext
[G04]: https://www.maturitas.org/article/S0378-5122(04)00003-9/fulltext
[BM12]: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1208%2Fs12249-012-9839-7
[SS20a]: https://transfemscience.org/articles/oral-vs-transdermal-e2/
[AW20-GUIDE]: https://transfemscience.org/articles/transfem-hormone-guidelines/
[P50]: https://www.ajog.org/article/0002-9378(50)90390-5/pdf
[C02]: https://www.fertstert.org/article/S0015-0282(02)03639-7/fulltext
[CY81]: https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/Abstract/1981/01000/Rapid_Absorption_of_Micronized_Estradiol_17_beta_.14.aspx
[SC89]: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(89)92762-1/fulltext
[DBK15]: https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/fulltext/2015/03000/Effects_of_Cross_Sex_Hormone_Treatment_on.12.aspx
[C21]: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/abs/10.1089/lgbt.2020.0249
[S90]: https://academic.oup.com/bmb/article-abstract/46/3/796/346771
[B81]: https://www.ajog.org/article/0002-9378(81)90101-0/pdf
[F82]: https://eje.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eje/101/1/acta_101_1_017.xml
[KGM93]: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8240460/
[P97]: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0029784496005133
[W01]: https://www.thieme-connect.de/products/ejournals/abstract/10.1055/s-2001-18223
[W03]: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/cmt.6.2.104.111
[P15]: https://journals.lww.com/menopausejournal/Fulltext/2015/12000/Pharmacokinetics_of_the_first_combination.9.aspx
[V19]: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0009898119318121
[L87]: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0889-8545(21)00577-5
[D20]: https://academic.oup.com/jes/article/4/Supplement_1/SUN-LB9/5833382
[D99]: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2FBF03190030
[P99]: https://www.maturitas.org/article/S0378-5122(99)00036-5/fulltext
[KBZ93]: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007%2F978-3-642-60107-1_15
[R05]: https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/90/12/6424/2837155
[S14]: https://ijpeonline.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1687-9856-2014-12
[K18]: https://eje.bioscientifica.com/view/journals/eje/178/2/EJE-17-0496.xml
[B21]: https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/106/2/e782/5988990
[L19]: https://ogscience.org/journal/view.php?doi=10.5468/ogs.2019.62.1.46
[HH41]: https://cancerres.aacrjournals.org/content/1/4/293
[S96]: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/%28SICI%291097-0045%28199605%2928%3A5%3C307%3A%3AAID-PROS6%3E3.0.CO%3B2-8
[K06]: https://acsjournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cncr.21528
[S15]: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/iju.12613
[LFJ18]: https://www.liebertpub.com/doi/10.1089/trgh.2017.0035
[P20]: https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/106/3/e1290/6009026
[L21]: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(21)00100-8/fulltext
[TY71]: https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article-abstract/32/6/766/2716339
[H93]: https://accp1.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/j.1552-4604.1993.tb01949.x
[JKF19]: https://academic.oup.com/jcem/article/104/11/5148/5479358
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
[AW19-CPA]: https://transfemscience.org/articles/cpa-dosage/
[D16]: https://transcare.ucsf.edu/guidelines
[C19]: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.5694/mja2.50259
[T20]: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsxm.2020.01.012
[AKA99]: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s002130051095
[A01]: https://www.doi.org/10.4088/JCP.v62n0504
[R18]: https://www.thrombosisresearch.com/article/S0049-3848(18)30389-X/fulltext
[CGHFBC19]: https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(19)31709-X/fulltext
[AW20-CLOT]: https://transfemscience.org/articles/estrogens-blood-clots/
[A04]: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/fullarticle/198540
[M05]: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/00365590510031228
[OW19]: https://academic.oup.com/humupd/article/25/2/257/5225102
[M21]: https://obgyn.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1471-0528.16524
[G18]: https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/M17-2785
[MDD20]: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0049384820304448
[J08]: https://www.dovepress.com/factors-affecting-therapeutic-compliance-a-review-from-the-patientrsqu-peer-reviewed-fulltext-article-TCRM
[T14]: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S2211335514000102
[PL05]: https://journals.lww.com/greenjournal/Abstract/2005/05000/Transdermal_Drug_Delivery__Clinical_Considerations.7.aspx
[T13]: https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0010782412009808
2022-11-29 01:44:55 +08:00
[W15]: https://journals.lww.com/psychopharmacology/Abstract/2015/08000/Transdermal_Estradiol_Treatment_for_Postpartum.7.aspx