乳腺癌风险与孕激素剂量之间的关联程度,目前尚不明确。类似地,乳腺癌风险是否受雌激素剂量影响,以及高雌激素剂量下是否有更高风险,目前也不明确。但无论如何,有绝经前妇女使用[雌、孕激素复方避孕疗法][wiki30]会增加乳腺癌风险的事实在先,可以认为,较高的雌/孕激素暴露量会增加一定程度的乳腺癌风险<sup>([Kahlenborn et al., 2006][KAHL06]; [Zhu et al., 2012][Z12]; [Ji et al., 2019][J19])</sup>。\
另外,一项早年的调查性研究显示,绝经前妇女使用雌激素注射剂之后,乳腺癌风险相较口服雌激素、或未服用激素者增加了 4 倍<sup>([Hulka et al., 1982][H82]; [Coe & Parks, 1989][CP89])</sup>。需要注意,通常剂量的雌激素注射剂所提供的雌激素暴露量,是远大于口服雌激素和其它给药途径的<sup>([Göretzlehner et al., 2002][GORE02]; [Aly, 2021][A21-IEMA])</sup>。但是,该研究存在很大的局限性:包括同类型研究仅此一项,年份非常早,等等。
人类[性染色体][wiki31]包括 [X 染色体][wiki32]和 [Y 染色体][wiki33]。顺性别妇女通常有两条 X 染色体(即 46,XX [核型][wiki34]);而顺性别男性、女性倾向跨性别者通常有一条 X 染色体、一条 Y 染色体(即 46,XY 核型)。其中 46,XX 核型(即第二条 X 染色体的存在)可能会是乳腺癌风险的主要因素。X 染色体的获得([非整倍性][wiki35])、以及其异常[失活][wiki36],已被发现和乳腺癌的发生及发展有关<sup>([Nakopoulou et al., 2007][N07]; [Di Oto et al., 2015][DO15]; [Lin et al., 2015][L15]; [Chaligné et al., 2015][C15]; [Di Oto et al., 2018][DO18])</sup>。此外,患有[克氏综合征][wiki37](即核型为 46,XXY)的男性的乳腺癌风险,也比 46,XY 核型的正常男性要高。\
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